RESUMO
Resumen (analítico) Las ideas parentales sobre el desarrollo infantil pueden guiarse por falsas creencias e influir en las interacciones tempranas. En este trabajo se estudian las ideas e interacciones en la relación mamá adolescente-bebé. La maternidad adolescente implica riesgos vinculares, llegando incluso hasta el maltrato. Se clasificó a las madres en modernas (activas) o tradicionales (pasivas), según la estimulación y acompañamiento del niño/a. Se evaluaron 145 díadas en los primeros dos años de vida. Los resultados indican peores interacciones en las madres tradicionales, siendo significativos en los contactos cara a cara, las interacciones táctiles y la función de sostén materna. El patrón de apego también se presenta más inseguro. Estos resultados permiten organizar programas de capacitación parental apuntando a la deconstrucción de ideas erróneas sobre el desarrollo y orientando interacciones saludables.
Abstract (analytical) Parental ideas about child development can be guided by false beliefs and influence early interactions. Adolescent mother and baby bonding ideas and interactions are related in this study. Adolescent motherhood implies additional risks, which even include abuse. Mothers are classified as modern -active- or traditional -passive-, based on the stimulation and accompaniment they provide to their child. 145 dyads are evaluated in the first two years of life. The results indicate worse interactions among traditional mothers, based on face-to-face contact, tactile interactions and the maternal support function. The attachment pattern is also more insecure. These results make it possible to organize parental training programs aimed at the deconstruction of erroneous ideas about development and guiding healthy interactions.
Resumo (analítico) As ideias dos pais sobre o desenvolvimento infantil podem ser guiadas por falsas crenças e influenciar as interações iniciais. As idéias e interações do vínculo mãe-bebê adolescente estão relacionados aqui. A maternidade na adolescência implica riscos relacionados, chegando mesmo ao abuso. As mães são classificadas em modernas -ativas- ou tradicionais -passivas-, de acordo com o estímulo e o acompanhamento do filho. 145 díades são avaliadas nos primeiros dois anos de vida. Os resultados indicam piores interações nas mães tradicionais, sendo significativos nos contatos face a face, nas interações táteis e na função de apoio materno. O padrão de apego também é mais inseguro. Esses resultados possibilitam a organização de programas de treinamento parental com o objetivo de desconstruir ideias errôneas sobre o desenvolvimento e orientar interações saudáveis.
Assuntos
Desenvolvimento Infantil , Mães Adolescentes , Mães , CulturaRESUMO
La ecolocación es una habilidad que usaría inconscientemente la mayoría de las personas. Resulta crucial para la movilidad independiente de la persona ciega e implica utilizar sonidos autoproducidos y sus reflexiones para localizar y reconocer objetos que no se ven. Dos nuevos paradigmas han enriquecido el estudio de esta sorprendente habilidad: el del acoplamiento sensoriomotor y el de la sustitución sensorial. El primero sostiene que los sistemas perceptivo y motor constituyen procesos acoplados que requieren un insoslayable tratamiento unificado. El segundo considera que es posible ver con los oídos o con la piel en virtud de la plasticidad cerebral. En esta segunda parte se presenta la temática en el contexto teórico de la cognición corporizada y de recientes avances en neurociencias; se desarrollan además los estudios realizados en el tercer período. En esta revisión se reflejan cambios paradigmáticos en las ciencias del comportamiento y el valor científico acrecentado de la ecolocación humana.
Echolocation is an ability that can be used daily by human beings, even without being conscious of it. It turns out to be crucial to the efficient independent mobility of the blind person, an aspect that is severely affected by blindness. It implies using the information that emerges from self-produced sounds and their reflexions in order to locate and recognize unseen objects. According to the new cognitive and ecological paradigms in perception, it is believed that the primary function of the auditory system is to determinate, i.e., to localize and recognize, the characteristics of the sound source through the sounds emitted by it. Within this context, it has been very recently argued that echolocation (i.e., the ability to locate and recognize biologically relevant secondary sound sources through the information contained in the direct-reflected couple) is a variant of that general process of primary sound sources determination. Two recently established scientific paradigms have specially enriched the study of this amazing ability: the sensorimotor contingency theory and the sensory substitution perspective. The first approach claims that the perceptual and motor systems are coupling processes that demand a thoroughly unified treatment. The second approach considers that, for example, vision loss does not mean loss of the ability to see since it is possible to see with the ears or the skin. The central idea is that the information usually captured by vision may instead be captured by touch or audition, on account of brain plasticity. In this way, in echolocation (which represents a kind of 'seeing with the ears' natural sensory substitution system that is part of the human endowment) action consists of the exploratory activity that the subject carries out through self-generation of sounds and head and/or cane movements while sensation refers to certain tonal or spatial percepts related to the presence and characteristics of the objects that the subject (implicitly) learns to perceive probably as auditory Gestalts. In the first part of this article the main theoretical aspects and a revision of the studies throughout two of the three delimited periods were developed: FIRST APPROACHES (1700 - 1935) and SIENTIFIC STUDY OF HUMAN ECHOLOCATION (1940 -1980). The questions that researchers formulated during these periods were firstly concerned with discovering if blind persons actually possessed this ability, which of the sense organs was involved and which sensory stimulation was its necessary and sufficient condition. Secondly, they inquired into the scopes of echolocation and its possible underlying psychoacoustic mechanisms. The thorough investigations carried out allowed to unequivocally establishing that audition is the sensory basis of this ability and that changes in pitch are its necessary and sufficient condition. It was also demonstrated that not only blind subjects but also appropriately trained sighted subjects were able to precisely localize and recognize the characteristics of the experimental objects. In this second part, we present the object of study within the context of theories of embodied cognition and recent developments in the field of the neurosciences; we also elaborate upon studies carried out during the third period, named RECENT STUDIES, that extends from 1990 to present days. We show how the blind person with good echolocation ability becomes an excellent experimental model to study behavioral and neurophysiological aspects involved in implicit learning. The article illustrates the paradigm shifts that occurred in recent scientific history through the study of this particular human ability that, within the mentioned recent theoretical context, has acquired a renewed interest.
RESUMO
La ecolocación humana es una habilidad genuina, inexplorada y vinculada con la localización de sonidos reflejados, que resulta crucial en la movilidad independiente de la persona ciega. Se inscribe en el área poco estudiada de la audición cotidiana de sonidos no verbales e implica autoproducir sonidos para obtener información (reflexiones) a fin de localizar y reconocer objetos que no se ven. Se presenta una revisión histórica de estudios realizados sobre la temática, que refleja cambios paradigmáticos del devenir científico. Las conceptualizaciones históricas de la ecolocación resultan ejemplificadoras: al comienzo se la consideraba como un fenómeno paranormal mientras que en la actualidad, se la trata como una habilidad utilizada inconscientemente por la mayoría de las personas. En esta primera parte se exponen aspectos teóricos relevantes y los estudios realizados en dos de los tres períodos en que se ha dividido esta revisión histórica. El tercer período se presenta en la segunda parte de este artículo.
Echolocation is a genuinely human though greatly unexploited ability that is closely related to the localization of reflected sounds. It is part of the scarcely studied and promising field of the percept-cognitive processes involved in everyday audition of non-verbal sounds. It implies self-producing sounds (original or direct signal) with the specific purpose of obtaining auditory information (reflected signal) to detect, locate and recognize unseen objects. This ability turns out to be crucial to the blind person's independent mobility, an aspect that is severely affected by blindness. We present an historical revision of the main studies that have been carried out on this particular phenomenon, describing the paradigm changes that occurred in scientific history. The historical conceptualizations of echolocation are specially revealing: while it was initially considered a paranormal phenomenon, a kind of sixth sense, now it is treated as an ability that could be unconsciously used by most of us. In this first part of this paper we present relevant theoretical aspects and the studies carried out during two of the three periods this historical revision has been divided in: (a) First approaches (1700 - 1935) and (b) Scientific study of human echolocation (decades from 40s to 80s). The third period, named recent studies, is developed in the second part of this article. The questions that were initially asked were concerned the explanation of which of the sense organs was involved and which sensory stimulation was the necessary and sufficient condition for this ability. Some researchers and many blind persons were inclined to look for the answer in the sense of touch, from stimuli such as differences in pressure, air currents or differences in temperature upon the skin of the face; this originated the name of facial vision with which echolocation is also known. During the 40s a vast and rigorous research program was put forward in order to elucidate the sensory basis of echolocation. Experimental subjects (blind and blindfolded sighted participants) that took part of the program had to walk through a corridor and halt at the moment they perceived the presence of an obstacle (mobile panel); then they kept on walking approaching the obstacle as near as possible without making contact (first perception and final appraisal, respectively). A series of ingenious tests was designed in which tactile or auditory input was artificially suppressed, one at a time. None of the subjects was able to perceive the object in the case of auditory input suppression. To confirm this finding, other tests were conducted in extreme conditions: for example, the subject was in another room using a telephone communication device and he / she had to perform the same task but this time it was the experimenter that walked across the corridor instead of him / her. The performance was not significantly affected in this extreme condition. In this way, it was unequivocally established that audition is the sensory basis of this particular kind of ability and that changes in pitch are its necessary and sufficient condition. Later studies inquired into the discriminatory power of echolocation and its scopes. It was demonstrated that, on the one hand, blind subjects and appropriately trained blindfolded sighted subjects were able to accurately judge the position, distance, size, material and shape of the objects. On the other hand, for the first time, research about the spontaneous generation of sounds by blind persons was carried out. It was observed that they used clicks or vocalizations to detect presence /absence of the object and continuous sibilant sounds to perceive its borders. Their performance was not significantly affected when they used artificial sounds that mimicked their own or sound signals that they had described as not preferred. Around the end of the second period the underlying psychoacoustic mechanisms were studied and two auditory fusion phenomena were postulated: repetition pitch and the precedence effect.
RESUMO
Este texto apresenta uma primeira aproximação com os chamados "quatro discursos em psicanálise": o discurso do Mestre, o discurso da Universidade, o discurso da Histérica e o discurso da Analista. Apresenta, de forma didática, os termos que compõem os discursos (S1, S2, a e S), bem como as posições invariáveis (agente, outro, produção e verdade). Detalha , em seguida, cada discurso separadamente, mostrando o significado de cada termo em sua posição específica e em sua relação com os demais termos que compõem cada discurso. Tem como referência básica a figura dos quatros discursos tal como Lacan apresenta no Seminário O avesso da Psicanálise (1969/70), em Radiofonia (1970, p.99), e na Conferência de Milão sobre o Discurso Analítico (12/05/1972/1978a)